What is the current state of the law on criminal conspiracy?

In United States v. Little, 753 F.2d 1420 (9th Cir.1984), we held that, "[t]he exception in section 371 which provides that the punishment for conspiracy shall not exceed the maximum punishment for the underlying offense applies only to conspiracies to commit substantive offenses, and not to conspiracies to defraud the United States." Id. at 1444; see also United States v. Nersesian, 824 F.2d 1294, 1313 (2d Cir.), cert. denied, --- U.S. ----, 108 S.Ct. 355, 98 L.Ed.2d 380 (1987); United States v. Cure, 804 F.2d 625, 629 (11th Cir.1986); United States v. Sans, 731 F.2d 1521 (11th Cir.1984), cert. denied, 469 U.S. 1111, 105 S.Ct. 791, 83 L.Ed.2d 785 (1985).